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In principle, a postal service can be public or private. Governments often place restrictions on private post. Since the mid-19th century national postal systems have generally has been set up as public monopolies with a prepaid fee on the article. Proof of payment is often in the form of adhesive stamps, postage meters are also used for bulk mailing. The art of communication by means of a written documents through a person or a place to the other almost certainly dates back almost to the invention of writing. However, the development of postal services formal systems occurred much later. The first documented use of a courier service organised for the dissemination of written documents is in Egypt, where the pharaohs couriers used for the dissemination of their decisions in the territory of the State (2400 BC). This practice almost certainly has roots in the much older practice of oral messages and May are built on an existing infrastructure. The first credible claim for the development of a genuine item comes from Persia (now Iran), but the point of the invention in question. The best-documented claim (Xenophon) attributes the invention of the Persian King Cyrus the Great (550 BC), while other writers credit his successor Darius I of Persia (521 BC.) Other sources claim much earlier dates for an Assyrian post, with credit given to Hammurabi (1700 BC) and Sargon II (722 BC.) Mail may not have been the primary task of the postal service, however. The role of the system as intelligence gathering apparatus is well documented, and the service was angariae (later), a term that in time changed to indicate that a tax system. The Old Testament (Esther, VIII) makes mention of this system: Ahasuerus, king of the Medes, couriers used for the communication of its decisions. The Persian system worked at stations (the so-called Chapar-Khane), where the message carrier (called Chapar) would drive to the next post, after which he would swap his horse with a fresh one, for maximum performance and speed of delivery. Herodotus described the system in this way: "It is said that many days when there throughout the journey, so many are the men and horses that stand along the road, each horse and man at the interval of a day trip, and this have been neither snow or rain, nor heat nor darkness of the completion of their appointed course with all speed "[2]. By the end of the eighteenth century the post in India had achieved impressive degree of efficiency. According to the British national Thomas Broughton, the Maharaja of Jodhpur sent daily supply of fresh flowers from his capital Nathadvara (320 km) and they arrived in time for the first religious Darshan at sunrise. [8] Later this system underwent complete modernisation when the British Raj found that the complete control over India. The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 provided that the Governor-General of India in the Council had the exclusive right of the transmission of letters through the mail for rent within the territory of the East India Company. The mails are available to certain officials without charge, which was a controversial privilege as the years passed. On this basis the Indian Post Office was established on October 1, 1837 [9]. China enjoyed postal relay stations since the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), this network has been greatly improved and expanded in the rule under Mongol Kublai Khan. Postal stations were not only used for the transmission and delivery of official mail, but are also available for travel officials, military men, foreign dignitaries. These stations aided and facilitated the transport of foreign and domestic honours, and trade in general. By the end of Kublai Khan rule there were more than 1400 postal stations, which in turn had at their disposal about horses 50000, 1400 oxen, donkeys 6700, 400 carts, boats 6000, more than 200 dogs and 1150 sheep. [10] Well before the Middle Ages and during them, homing pigeons were used for the pigeon post, using a unique quality of this bird, who was taken far from its nest in a position to meet its way home due to a particularly developed sense of orientation. Messages were then linked around the feet of the dove, who was released and could reach its original nest. Many religious orders had a private mail service, in particular the Cistercians' more than 6000 connected abbeys, monasteries and churches. The best organization, however, was built by the Knights Templar. The newly established universities had their own departments, from Bologna (1158). In 1505, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I post in a central government, the appointment of Franz von Thurn und Taxis to run. The Thurn and Taxis family, then known as Tassis, had operated postal services between the Italian city states from 1290 onwards. After the abolition of the Empire in 1806 the Thurn and Taxis post continued as a private organization, remain in the era before finally stamp is absorbed into the postal system of the new German Empire after 1871. The word mail comes from the medieval English word male (spelt that way until the 17th century), which was the term used to describe a travel bag or package. [11] The French have a similar word, malle for a tribe or a big box, mála And the Irish for a bag. In the 1600s the word mail began to appear as a reference for a bag that those letters: "bag filled letter" (1654). Over the next hundred years the word mail began to be applied strictly to the letters themselves, and the bag if the mailbag. In the 19th century the British usually referred to as mail letters that were sent abroad (ie on a ship), and mail such as letters that were localized delivery in the United Kingdom Royal Mail delivers post, while in the US US Postal Service delivers the mail. The term e-mail (short for "electronic mail") first appeared in 1982. The term snail-mail is a retronym that was created in 1983 to distinguish it from the faster e-mail. Modern e-mail is being organized by the national and privatized services, which are mutually linked by international regulations, organizations and international agreements. Paper letters and packages can be sent to almost every country in the world relatively easily and cheaply. The Internet has the process of sending letter-type messages almost immediately, and in many cases and situations correspondents use of electronic mail where they previously would have used letters (although the volume of paper mail continues to grow.) [12] The global postal system with the individual national postal systems of the world is self-governing states is coordinated by the Universal Postal Union, which among other things proposes international postage rates, defines the standards for postage and the system of the International Reply Coupons. In most countries a system of codes has been made (they are called ZIP Codes in the United States, postal codes in the United Kingdom and Australia, and postal codes in most other countries), so the automation of operations. This includes placing additional brands at the address that part of the letter or e-mail item, the so-called "bar coding." Bar coding of e-mail for delivery is usually expressed either by a series of vertical bars, usually called POSTNET coding, or a series of points as a two-dimensional bar code. The "block of dots" method makes it possible to encode the proof of payment of postage, exact routing for the supply, and other functions. The ordinary postal service was improved in the 20th century with the use of aircraft for faster delivery (air mail). The first scheduled airmail service took place between the London suburb of Hendon and Windsor on September 9, 1911. Some methods of airmail proven ineffective, however, including the United States Postal Service experiment with rocket mail. Worldwide, the most common method of prepaying postage by buying a stamp adhesive to be applied to the envelope for mailing, a much less common method is to use a postage-prepaid envelope. Franking is a method of creating postage prepaid envelopes under license with a special machine. They are used by companies with large mailers such as banks and direct mail companies. In 1998 the US Postal Service has empowered the first tests of a secure system of sending digital francs over the Internet out to a PC printer, obviating the need for a special license franking machine and the ability for companies with smaller mail program's use of the option, which was later extended to the testing of the use of personalized postage. The service of the US Postal Service in 2003, the franc to be printed on special adhesive-backed labels. In 2004 the Royal Mail in the United Kingdom introduced its SmartStamp Internet-based system, making it simple to print labels or envelopes. Similar systems are considered by the Post Office across the world. When the pre-paid envelope or package has been accepted in the e-mail by an agent of the postal service, the agent usually gives through a cancellation that it is no longer valid for a pre-payment of postage. The exceptions are when the agent forgets or ignores every mailpiece, for the stamps that have been cancelled in advance and thus no need for the cancellation and, in most cases, measured mail. (The "personalized stamps" by the USPS and manufactured by Zazzle and other businesses are in fact a form of a meter label and not have to be canceled.) Documents can not be read by anyone other than the recipient, for example in the United States is a violation of federal law for anyone other than the recipient of the mail to open. However, exceptions exist, such as postcards, which can be read by the postman for the purpose of the identification of the sender and recipient. For mail contained in an envelope, there are legal provisions in some jurisdictions with which the recording identities. [13] The privacy of correspondence is guaranteed by the Mexican Constitution, and is alluded to in the European Convention of Human Rights [14] and the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man. [13] According to the laws in the relevant jurisdiction, the correspondence can be openly or secretly opened or the contents determined by another method, by the police or other authorities in some cases with respect to their relevance to an alleged criminal conspiracy or Suspected, although black rooms (largely in the past, but there is apparently some continuation of its use today) open and open letters extralegally. Military mail to and from soldiers on active deployment is often subject to strict censorship. International mail and packages are subject to customs control. Modern alternatives such as the telegraph, telephone and e-mail, the attractiveness of paper mail for many applications. Sometimes these modern alternatives are more attractive because, unlike paper mail, there is no concern about unknown people learn your address from the address on the outside of an envelope. Modern alternatives can be better than on paper mail as vandalism may occur with mailboxes (although it could also be argued that paper mail is not possible for computer viruses). Also dangerous risks exist for the mail carriers as unfriendly pets or bad weather. Because of the dangers or discomforts postal carriers may refuse, official or otherwise, to deliver mail to a particular address (for example, if there is a clear path to the door or mailbox is not present). Post is still widely in use for business (because of the special legal status of signatures in some situations, and in many jurisdictions, etiquette, or transfer of things that can not be done by the computer, such as a certain texture, or , of course, items in packages), and for a number of personal communication. For example, wedding invitations in some Western countries are usually sent via e-mail. Since the advent of e-mail, which is almost always faster (barring some extreme technical malfunction, computer virus or something similar), the post has been referred to in Internet slang by the retronym "post". Occasionally, the term "white mail" or "PaperNet" is also used as a neutral term for the post. In modern times, especially in the 20th century, mail has found an evolution in vehicles using newer technologies to deliver the documents, in particular through the telephone network, these new vehicles include telegram, telex, fax (fax) e-mail, short message service (SMS). There are methods which combined mail and some of these newer methods, such as INTELPOST, facsimile transmission combined with overnight delivery. These vehicles joint use of a mechanical or electro-mechanical standardized writing (typing), which on the one hand makes for a more efficient communication, but on the other hand, makes it impossible characteristics and practices that were traditionally in conventional mail, such as calligraphy . Stamps are also subject of a special form of collecting, and in some cases, when the demand far exceeds the supply, their commercial value on this specific market can be enormously greater than the face value, even after use. For some the sale of postal stamps for collectors who will never use them is a major source of income, for example stamps from Tokelau, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Tristan da Cunha, Niuafo'ou and many others. Stamp collecting is commonly known as postzegelkunde, although strictly the last term refers to the study of stamps. Another form of collecting postcards, a document written on a sheet of paper robust, usually decorated with photographic images or artistic drawings on one side, and short messages on a small part of the other side, that the scope for The address. In strict philatelic use, the postcard can be distinguished from the postal card, a pre-printed stamps on the map. The fact that this communication is visible by other than the recipient often the messages are written in jargon. Letters are often examined as an example of the literature, and also in the biography in the case of a famous person. Part of the New Testament of the Bible is composed of the apostle Paul's epistles to Christian churches in different parts of the Roman Empire. See below for a list of famous letters. Although many things are sent through the mail, interpersonal letters are often thought in the first reference to the Post Office. Handwritten correspondence, while once an important means of communication between people at a distance, is now used less frequently due to the advent of more direct way of communicating, such as the telephone or e-mail. Traditional letters were often as rakes back to a simpler time "and is still used if someone would like to deliberate and thoughtful about his or her communication. Accounts and invoices are often through the mail, such as billing regular correspondence from utilities and other service providers. These letters often contain a self-addressed envelope so that the recipient contract payment back to the company easy. although still very common, many people now choose to use online bill payment services, which eliminate the need to receive bills through the mail. Bulk mail is mail that is prepared for bulk mailing, often by presorting and processing at reduced rates. It is often used in direct marketing and other commercial solicitations sent by advertisers, but it has other applications. senders of these messages may purchase lists of addresses (which are sometimes targeted at specific demographic) and then sends letters advertising their product or service to all recipients. Other times, commercial solicitations are sent by local companies advertising of local products, such as a restaurant delivery service advertising for their delivery or in a store sending their weekly advertising circular one general area. Bulk mail is often sent to companies' existing subscriber bases, advertising new products or services. Postal cards and postcards are small message cards that are sent via e-mail unenveloped, the distinction often , but not always reliable, made between them is that "postal cards are issued by the postal authority or entity with the" postal indica "(or" Seal ") prior to them, while private postcards are issued and require affixing a stamp glue (although there are some cases of a postal service the issue of non-stamped postcards). Postcards are often printed on the promotion of tourism, with pictures of resorts, tourist attractions or humorous messages on the front and the possibility of a short message from the sender be written on the back. The shipping required for postcards is generally less than postage needed for standard letters, but certain technical aspects such as their oversized or cut-outs [3] can result in the payment of the first-class fare is required. Postcards are also used by magazines for new subscriptions. In many magazines are postage-paid subscription cards that a reader can fill out and mail back to the publisher to be billed for a subscription to the magazine. In this mode, magazines also use postcards for other purposes, including reader surveys, contests or information requests. Large envelopes are also sent through the mail. They are often made of sturdy material than standard envelopes, and are often used by companies to carry documents not be folded or damaged, such as legal documents and contracts. Because of their size, larger envelopes are sometimes additional shipping charge. Packages are often sent by a number of postal services, which are generally extra postage than an average letter or postcard. Many postal services are limits to what can and can not be sent in packages, usually placing restrictions or a ban on perishable, hazardous or flammable materials. Some hazardous substances in limited quantities can be provided with appropriate markings and packaging, as an ORM-D label. Moreover, as a result of terrorism, the US Postal Service subjects their packages to various safety tests, often scanning or x-raying packages for materials that can be found in mail bombs. Hybrid mail, sometimes also referred to as L-mail, electronic filing of the e-mail from the mail generator computer directly to a Postal Service provider. The Postal Service provider is then able to use electronic means of the mail pieces sorted, routed and physically produced on a site closest to the delivery point. It is a kind of mail growing in popularity with a number of Post Office operations and individual companies venturing into this market. In some countries, these services are available for printing and e-mails to deliver not receive an e-mail, such as the elderly or infirmed. Mail A Letter is one such service in the United States, the United Kingdom, the Royal Mail offers a similar service. ^ In Australia, Canada and the US, mail is often used, for the post and for letters and packages in New Zealand, mail is more common system for the postal and mail for the material delivered in the United Kingdom, after prevail in both senses. However, the British, American, Australian and Canadian national postal service, respectively, Royal Mail, United States Postal Service, Australia Post, and Canada Post; also fixed expressions such as post office or junk e-mail can be found across the English world.
Communication is a process that allows organisms to share information through various methods. Exchange requires feedback. The word communication is also used in the context where there is little or no feedback is expected, such as broadcasting, or if the feedback could be delayed if the consignor or the consignee using different methods, technologies, the timing and means for feedback. Communication takes place on many levels (even for a single operation), in many different ways, and for most creatures, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, areas of study devote a part of the focus on communications, so that when talking about the communication is very important to be sure about what aspects of the communication is a prime. Definitions broad range of communications, some recognition of the fact that animals can communicate with each other as well as humans, and some are more narrow, but including humans within the parameters of human symbolic interaction. Between parties, communication includes acts by individuals knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These actions can take many forms, in one of several ways of communication. The shape depends on the skills of the group to communicate. Together, communications content and form, messages sent to a destination. They might themselves, another person or another entity (such as a company or group of beings). Therefore, the Committee on Social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of plates and a common set of rules semiotic. (This common rule in a sense, ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries of self-talk). In a simple model, information or content (for example, a message in natural language) has been sent in a form (as spoken) from a emisor / sender / encoder to a destination / receiver / decoder. In a slightly more complex form a transmitter and a receiver are mutually connected. A particular case of the Commission shall be a speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), the reception and decryption of the contents may be defective, and hence the expression may not achieve the desired effect. Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even primates. Any exchange of information between living organisms - that the transfer of signals with a live sender and recipient - can be regarded as a form of communication. There is the broad field of animal communication, in which most of the topics in ethology. At a more fundamental level, there is cell signaling, mobile communications, and the chemical communication between primitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All communication of these processes are character-mediated interactions with a wide variety of different coordinations. Animal communication is a behavior on the part of an animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be included as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, the so-called zoosemiotics (distinguishing anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important role in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite clear when people are able to communicate with the animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses However, these animals have to learn a special way of communicating. Animal communication, and even the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing area, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings regarding various areas such as personal symbolic name, the emotions of animals, animal culture and learning, and even sexual behaviour, long thought to be well understood, is a revolution. There are communications between different types of bacteria, and between bacteria and not bacterial life as eukaryotic hosts. Among the semiochemicals necessary for development of bacterial communities such as division, detect, and a synthesis of secondary metabolites are there physical contact-mediated behavioral patterns important in biofilm organization. There are three classes of signalling molecules for different purposes, ie signaling in the body to coordinate gene expression to generate adequate response behavior, signaling between the same or related in different species. The most popular communicative behavior is "quorum sensing". Quorum sensing is the term used to describe sign-mediated interactions in which chemical molecules produced and secreted by bacteria. They are recognized by the bacterial community depends on a critical concentration in a special relation to the population density. These molecules trigger the expression of a wide variety of gene transcription. The semiochemicals used by bacteria are of great diversity, especially since some signalling molecules are more reusable components. Today three types of communicative goals have been identified: (A) two-way communication, active character-mediated interactions that is useful for both interacting parts, (B) messages that are produced in response to an event which does not constitute an indicator of a receiver that Was not specifically addressed by the producer. A fortuitous event which is neutral - with the exception of the energy costs of production - to the producer but beneficial to the recipient, (C) signalling manipulation of the recipient, that is a result of a response that unilateral behavior is beneficial for the producer and harmful to the recipients that they often behave towards their normal targets. The three classes of bacteria communications bacteria can generate and coordinate various behavioural patterns: the self-employed and non-autonomous identification, ie the identification of other colonies and the measurement of their size, pheromone based courtship for mating, the change of structure colony in the layout of the fruiting bodies, Initiation of development and growth processes eg Traces. [1] Fungi communicate, coordinate and organize their own growth and development, such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting. In addition communicate with the same fungus and related species, as well as nonfungal organisms in a wide variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals of biotic origin and ensures that the fungi organism to respond to a specific manner, while the difference even in the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages not to respond trigger the fungi organism. It means, fungal organisms responsible for the difference of the same molecules that are part of biotic messages, or the lack of these features. So far five different primary known signalling molecules that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns as filamentation, fertilization, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and production of these substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: autonomous or non-autonomous indicator abiotic, biotic notice of similar, related or non-related species, or even "noise", ie similar molecules without biotic Content. A language is syntactically an organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, pitch or intonations, gestures or written symbols that communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures or written symbols, animal communication can be regarded as a language? Animals have no written form of language, but the use of a language to communicate with each other. In this sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separate language. Language learning is normal in the human childhood. Most human languages patterns of sound or gesture for symbols that allow communication with others around them. There are thousands of human language, and these seem to share certain characteristics, even though many shared characteristics exceptions. Our debts to the Old Romans in the field of communications do not end with the Latin root "communicare". She thought what can be described as the first real mail or post to centralize control of the empire of Rome. This allowed for personal letters and Rome to gather knowledge about the events in its many widespread provinces. The adoption of a dominant communications medium is important enough that historians have folded civilization in "age", according to the most widely used medium. A book "Five Epochs of civilization" by William McGaughey (2000) divides the history into the following phases: Ideographic writing yielded the first civilization; alphabetical letter, the second, printing, third and electronic recording and broadcasting, fourth; And computer communication, the fifth. The media affects what people think about themselves and how they themselves too. What we think themselves image and what others should look like comes from the media. Communications media impact over the reach of the messages. They impact content and customs, for instance, Thomas Edison had to discover that hello was the least ambiguous greeting by the voice-over a distance; previous greetings such as hail often garbled in transmission. The terseness of e-mail and chat rooms, the need for the emoticon. 1 In Southwest Asia; included here because of cultural, political and historical association with Europe. 2 partially or entirely in Asia, depending on the definition of the border between Europe and Asia. 3 Mostly in Asia. 4 In the North American plate, who because of the cultural, political and historical association with Europe. 5 In the African plate, who because of the cultural, political and historical association with Europe. Only 6 recognized by Turkey.
An overhead line supplies the services of æreo transport for the passengers or the transport, generally a certificate or an authorization of recognized operation. The overhead lines affittano or possess their aircraft with which assuring these services and it can form the associations or the alliances with other overhead lines for the mutual benefit. The overhead lines vary from those with one mail transporting or a cargo of the single airplane, with international the overhead lines of full-service that work many hundreds of the airplanes. The services of overhead line can be categorizza you like being intercontinental, intracontinental, or domestic and can be work like the services or previewed letters to you. Jannus tony has united culvert Declares ' the flight trades previewed them of overhead line in the first place 1 January 1914 for the st Petersburg-directs, than, with time and the fusions, evolverebbe in the lines of the Delta Air, in the aerial ways of Braniff, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), in the overhead lines of the world of the transport, in the overhead lines of the north-west and the air lines orients them, in order to call some. At the same time, Juan Trippe has begun a crusade in order to generate a net of the air that would connect the America to the world and has realized this objective with its overhead line, aerial ways Americans of the world of the vaschetta, with a fleet of the flight boats that have connected Los Angeles to Schang-Hai and Boston to London. Pan Am was the only overhead line of the UNITED STATES to go international before the 1940s. The KLM, the oldest still carrying element that it works under the relative name originate them, have been founded in 1919. The first flight (worked to name of the KLM in Aircraft Transport and race) has transported two English passengers to Schiphol, Amsterdam from London in 1920. As other important European overhead lines of the time (see France and United Kingdom here under), the development begin them of the KLM depended heavy on the necessities to assist the connections with the colonial possessions to make-flung (Indian Dutch). It is only after the loss of the Dutch empire that the KLM has found in if based to a small country with little passengers upgrades them, depending heavy on the transfer traffic and was one of the first one in order to introduce ship-boy-arranges in order to facilitate the easy connections. France has begun a service of mail of the air in Morocco in 1919 that has been bought outside in 1927, changed tito it Aéropostale and iniettato with understood them for transformarsi in in an international carrying element important. In 1933, Aéropostale has failed, been nationalized and fused be with several other overhead lines in that what has been well to Air France. In Finland, the letter that establishes O/Y air (hour Finnair, one older still-operating overhead lines in the world) has been signed in the city of Helsinki the 12 september 1923. Junkers F 13 D-335 has been transformato in in the first aircraft of the company, once air has taken to the delivery 14 March to it 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, understood them of the 20 Estonia and it has happened March 1924 more subsequently, one week. Lufthansa of the Germany has begun in 1926. Lufthansa, various of the greater part of the other overhead lines then, has become an important investor in the overhead lines outside of Europe, supplying the understood one them to Varig and Avianca. The constructed German airliners in Junkers, Dornier and fokker were then most advanced in the world. The peak of the German æreo travel has come in the mid-1930s, when the Nazi ministers of propaganda have approved of the beginning service trade them of zeppelin: the airship large was a symbol of industrial force, but the fact that has used inflammable hydrogen has provoked emergency restlessness that has culminated with the disaster of Hindenburg of 1937. The reason that the not-inflammable gas of helium has used hydrogen rather than was joined Declares the military embargo on helium. The British transport and the race of the aircraft of the company have begun London to service de Paris di 25 Th August 1919, this were the first normal international flight of the world. The element carrying of the small flag of United Kingdom during this period was imperial aerial ways, than they have been transformate in in BOAC (overseas British overhead lines Co.) in 1939. The imperial aerial ways have used the enormous biplanes of Handley-Pagina for the routes between London, Middle East and India: the images of imperial aircraft in means of the Rub' to the Khali, being carrying out from Bedouins, are between the more famous images from the heyday of the British empire. The first country in Asia in order to embrace the æreo transport was the Philippines. 26 the Philippine overhead lines have been founded February 1941, rendendogli the oldest carrying element of Asia still that it works under the relative running name. The overhead line has been begun from a group of the businessmen lead from Andres Soriano, hailed then like one of the main manufacturers of the Philippines. The first flight of the overhead line has been made 15 March 1941 with a single aircraft NPC-54 of model 18 of the faggio, that it has begun the relati to you daily services between Manila (from the field of Nielson) and Baguio, more subsequently in order to expand with greater aircraft which the viscount of Vickers and DC-3. Considerable Philippine the overhead lines have affittato Japan Airlines their first aircraft, "a Kinsei" called DC-3. The 31 July 1946, the Philippine overhead lines instituted DC-4 ferried 40 mechanics Americans to Oakland, California from the airport of Nielson in the city of Makati with the arrests to in Guam, isolates of awakening, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, rendering to pal Asian aerial front line in order to cross the pacific ocean. A normal service between Manila and San Francisco has been begun in December. It was during this year that the overhead line has been indicated like the carrying element of the small flag of the Philippines. An other company of overhead line in order to begin the operations begins them was Air India, that it has had relative beginning like overhead lines of Tata in 1932, one division sons srl (the hour group of Tata di Tata) from main manufacturer JRD Tata of India. 15 October 1932, J. R. D. same Tata he has flown one mails of transporting air of the single lepidottero engined of the De Havilland Puss (mail mails them of the imperial aerial ways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft is continued to Madras via Bellary piloted from pilot Nevill Vincent of the real aeronautics. To continuation of the conclusion of the second world war, the service trades them normal has been red-establish in India and the overhead lines of Tata have been well to one public limited liability partnership the 29 July 1946 under the name of Air India. After independence of India, 49% of the overhead line have been acquired from the government of India. In exchange, the overhead line has been assigned the condition in order to work the international services to leave from India like the indicated carrying element of the small flag under the name of Air international India. Of the countries æreo transport soon also embraced close, considerable with cathay Pacific founded in 1946, overhead lines de Singapore and overhead lines malaysian in 1947 (like malesi aerial ways), Garuda Indonesia in 1949 and Japan Airlines founded in 1951. With the explosion of world war two, the presence of overhead line in Asia has come to relative stopping, with many new carrying elements of the small flag that donate their aircraft for the military subsidy and other uses. The second world war, like the world.war.i, has carried the new life to the industry of overhead line. Many overhead lines in the countries ally to you were to level from lease contract contracts to the soldiers and have previewed one demanded explosive future of civil æreo transport, for are the passengers who the cargo. Which were yearnings to recently invest in the ships flagship of emersione of the æreo travel the Stratocruiser Boeing, constellation of Lockheed and Douglas DC-6. The greater part of the this new aircraft has been bases on the bombers Americans to you which the B-29, that which pressurization has had search condutta on the new technologies. The greater part offers has increased the efficiency is from speed added that from larger the payload. The great push following for the overhead lines would come in years 70, when Boeing 747, Mcdonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 have inaugurated ("Jumbo-jet") the service widebody, that he is still the champion in the international race. Tupolev Tu-144 and relative controparti western, the Concorde, rendered to supersonic race one truth. In 1972, Airbus has begun to produce the line more commercially succeeded of Europe of the airliners end here. The added efficiencies for the this aircraft often were not in the speed, but in the capienza of the passenger, payload and the range. While the conjunctural cycle has sent back to the normalcy, the overhead lines important have dominated their routes with the offered ones of additional capienza and aggressive prices, often overflowing the new departures. Only the overhead lines to the west of the America (that from it has then fused with the aerial ways of the United States) are remained a meaningful survivor from this was of the new task, like the dozens, even hundred, have gone under. In many senses, the larger winner in the diregolarizzato atmosphere was the passenger of the air. Effectively, the UNITED STATES have testified an explosive increase of the demand for the travel æreo, altretanti the million that they have not never had or flown very rarely before have been the fins of filatoio normal, even unentesi programs loyalty of the frequent fin filatoio and receiving the free flights and other benefits from their flight. The new services and most vhf have meant that the fins of filatoio of transactions could fly to an other city, make the commerce and send back the same day, in order nearly whichever point in the country. The advantages of the æreo travel have put the lines of interurban buses under pressure and the greater part has withered via. Therefore the 50 last years of the industry of overhead line have varied from reasonably favorable, devastatingly to the gotten depressed one to. Like the first main market for diregolarizzare the industry in 1978, the overhead lines of the UNITED STATES have perceived more turbulence that nearly any other country or region. , today nearly every single carrying element of the inheritance except American Airlines has worked under the dispositions of failure of understood it 11 or has exited of the commerce. Many countries have national overhead lines that the government possesses and works. Completely classified the overhead lines are in compliance with the very many regulation of government for the economic, political worries and of emergency. As an example, the government often takes part to the actions of job of overhead line of stopped in order protect the free flow of people, the communications and the goodses between the different regions without compromise emergency. Joined It declares, Australia and to an inferior degree Brasi them, Mexico, United Kingdom and Japan "has diregolarizzato" their overhead lines. In the past, these governments have dictated the airfares, direct the nets and other requirement operated you of every overhead line. From deregulation, the overhead lines have been in great part free to negotiate their own dispositions of operation with different airports, they enter and they remove easy in the routes and to impose the airfares and to supply the flights according to the market demand. The barriers of the entrance for the new overhead lines are lower in a diregolarizzato market and so as to the UNITED STATES have seen the hundreds of the overhead lines to begin in on (to times in order only a short period of operation). That has produced the competition very greater that before deregulation in the greater part of the markets and the prices of average stretches to falling 20% or more. The added competition, with to the appraisal freedom, means that the new tasks often take the percentage of the market with the rates highly reduced that, to a limited degree, the complete overhead lines of service must bind together. That is an important tie on profit for the established carrying elements, that they stretch to having a higher base than cost. The groups which the international organization of civil aeronautics all over the world establishes the champions for vital emergency and other worries. The greater part of international the æreo traffic is regulated from the bilateral agreements between the countries, than carrying elements specific it designates in order to make to you to work over the specific routes. The model of a such agreement was the agreement of the Bermude between the United States and BRITISH after the second world war, that it has indicated the airports to use for the flights ocean-going liners and has given to every government the authority in order to name the carrying elements in order to make to work the routes. The bilateral agreements are base to you "on the freedoms of the air," a group of the rights generalize you of traffic that vary from the freedom for overfly a country to the freedom in order to supply the domestic flights to the inside of a country (assigned a lot very rarely to right known like cabotage). The greater part of the agreements concurs the overhead lines to fly from theirs pæse of origin to the airports indicates to you in the other country: some moreover extend the freedom in order to supply the continuous service to pæse a third party, or an other destination in the other country while they transport the passengers from overseas. In years 90, "the agreements of open skies" have become more common. These agreements take many of these regolarici feedings from declare the governments and open the international routes to ulterior competition. The open agreements of skies have come to contact of a sure critic, especially to the inside of European Union, of which the overhead lines they would be one svantaggiato comparative with joined Declares ' because of the limitations of cabotage. An argument is that the esteriorità positive, which more high due development total mobility, exceeds the microeconomic losses in weight and justifies to continue the participation of government. A high level historically of participation of government in the industry of overhead line can be seen like member of a wider political consent on the strategic shapes of transport, which the main roads and the railroads, both which they receive the public who constitutes a bottom for in greater the part of the world. The profit is probable to improve in happening poichè the continuous privatization and the carrying elements to low cost more competiti to you proliferano. Because of the complications in the flights of programming and the carrying out profit, the overhead lines have many loops-hole that can be used from the informed traveller. Many of these secrets of airfare are becoming more and than more known the great public, so as to the overhead lines are forced in order to proceed to the constant recordings. The greater part of the use of overhead lines has differentiated estimating, a shape of distinction of prices, in order simultaneously to sell the ærei services to the prices of variation to the different segments. The factors that influence the price include the days remaining until alla departure, al reserved factor del loaded, alla forecast della demanded total dal point of prices, alla competitive appraisal in the vigor and alle variations of day della week della departure and within the hour. The carrying elements often complete this every dividend shack of the aircraft (in the first place, commerce and economy) in a sure number of codes category of race for the scopes of appraisal. A complicating factor is that one of control of the origin-destination ("O&D control"). Someone that buys a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as example) for $200 (AUD) is competing to qualcun' other that desires flying Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight and that is disposed to pay $1400 (AUD). Would have the overhead line to prefer passenger $1400, or more $200 passenger a possible passenger de Sydney-Los Angeles that it wants to pay $1300? The overhead lines must giornalmente make the hundreds of the migliaia of the similar decisions of appraisal. The introduction of the systems computerizes to you advances you of reservations towards the end of years 70, the more considerable Sabre, conceduta the overhead lines in order to easy carry out the yield and cost analyses on the different structures of appraisal, leading nearly in order to that is perfect distinction of prices in some cases (filling up every center on an aircraft to the elevated price more that it can be made without to guide the consumer elsewhere). The distinction of prices is considered a practical one anti-business and is defined like definition of distinctions of prices: different prices for the identical products. This is technically the total of the specific action of the other overhead line, without violation laws. The overhead lines archaic, with ship-boy-arrange and the not profitable structures of appraisal, have defined legal this concept like attack to the commerce, even if this action is not outside of law. The carrying elements of low cost (LCC' s) are new on the scene and they have not decided of the contacts or means in order proscrivere this practical definition of a pure legal one of transactions (in which they have chosen to participate) as practical monopolistic to those with the structure of sopraccennata appraisal archaic. The carrying elements national still have to define as the distinction is an injurious action intenionally and volitionally injurious on their commerce from a competitor. Laws that proteggono the commerce can be applied, or those who has the greater effect can insinuate without test that they are dealt unfairly and they can use therefore their legal charter like the defender in order to limit the manuevaribility of LCC' s to the inside of the market. An example is that they demand the taxes from the government of the United States for the specific airports, for which the citizen receives the exemption or the subsidy for the treatment of a)seniority/grandfathering, or condition b)legal like financially on the edge (that is pre-failure). The intense nature of appraisal of airfare has lead to the term "price war" in order to describe to the efforts the overhead lines to cut to other overhead lines on the competitive routes you. Through the computers, the new ones airfares can be publish to you quickly and efficiently to rabbets of sales of the overhead lines. To this fine the overhead lines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), that they more distribute the last prices in order than 500 overhead lines to the reservation systems of the calculating through the world. the overhead lines of Full-service have a high level of the fixed operating costs and in order to establish and to carry out the ærei services: job, fuel, airplanes, motors, parts of recambio and you leave, IT services and nets, equipment of the airport, airport that handle the services, distribution of sales, supplying, training, assurance of aeronautics and other costs. Therefore all but one small percentage of the yield from the sales of the ticket is paid outside to a wide variety of external suppliers or inner centers of cost. Moreover, the industry is structured so that the overhead lines often act as from tax collectors. The fuel of overhead line is, however, taxed had a series of it does not deal to you that they exist between the countries. The prices of the ticket include a sure number of taxes, of taxes and of sovrattasse that they have little or no control over and these they are passes through several to the suppliers. The overhead lines are moreover responsible of making to respect the government regulations. If the overhead lines transport the passengers without documentation adapted on an international flight, are responsible of the restitution they of new to the beginning country. In opposition, the overhead lines of the south-west have been most favorable of the companies of overhead line from 1970. Effectively, some sources have calculated the south-west for being the action of effettuazione better during the period, surpassing Microsoft and a lot other high that they carry out the companies. The main reasons for this are their control of consistency and cost of the product. The diffuse entrance of new race of the overhead lines of low cost that begin to the end of the century has accelerated the demand that the carrying elements full of service control the costs. Many of these companies of low cost emulate the overhead lines of the several south-west in respects and like the south-west, they can eke towards the outside a constant profit during all is made of the conjunctural cycle. Consequently, a shakeout of the overhead lines it is being introduced in the UNITED STATES and elsewhere. United Airlines, the aerial ways of the United States (two times), the lines of the Delta Air and the overhead lines of the north-west have all the declared failure of understood it 11 and the American has avoided to mala pain to make therefore. Alitalia, arranges Scandinavian of overhead lines, SABENA, Swissair, arranges of air of Japan, Viasa, Air Canada, Ansett Australia and others flirted with or failure declared from 1995, poichè debuttanti of low cost also approach their home markets. Some support that it would be very better for the industry in together if a wave of the real closings had to reduce the number of overhead lines "of the undead" that they compete to the overhead lines knows of it while artificially was protect from the creditors via failure law. Of other part, some have specified that the reduction of the capienza would be of short duration poichè would be great amounts of relatively new aircraft that the failures would wish to eliminate and king-enter the market as fleets increased for the survivors or the base of the little expensive airplane for the new departures. The financing of overhead line is enough complex, since the overhead lines are operations highly leveraged. They must buy (or not only lease contract) the new agencies of airliner and motors regularly, must take the decisions of long duration important of the fleet with the objective to answer to the requirements of their markets while they produce a fleet that is relatively economic to work and to carry out. Comparisons the overhead lines of the south-west and their resource to a single type of the airplane (Boeing 737 and derive to you), to the air lines it orients them hour defunct that 17 different types of aircraft have worked, everyone with the pilot of variation, the motor, the maintenance and the needs of support. A second edition financial institution is that one of the purchases of the oil and the fuel of the hedging, that they are usually in the second place only to the job in the relative relative cost to the company. However, with the prices it elevates currents to you of the fuel has been transformato in in the greatest cost to one overhead line. While protect the instruments it can be expensive, it can pay if easy same more times in the periods of the increasing costs of the fuel, which in period 2000-2005. In consideration of the congestion appearing to many international airports, the property of rabbets to determines airports to you (the right to the takeoff or lands an aircraft to an hour or a particular night) has been transformata in in a good trades them meaningful for many overhead lines. Clearly the rabbets of takeoff to the popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the traveller more favorable than transactions to the flight of the date overhead line and in the stabilization of the competitive advantage against one competent overhead line. If a particular city has two or more airports, the forces of the market will stretch to attract the less favorable routes, or those on which the competition she is more weak person, to the airport more than less congested, in which rabbets they are probable to be more available and therefore more little expensive. Other factors, which the facilities of transport surface and the connections in ahead, moreover will interest the appeal relative of the different airports and some flights of long distance can need working that one with the longer track beginning from. The compartecipazione of code is the type more common than association than overhead line; it is involved an overhead line that sells tickets for the flights of an other overhead line under relative just the code of overhead line. An example begins them of this was association of compartecipazione of code of the Japan Airlines with Aeroflot in years 60 on the flights from Tokyo to Moscow: Aeroflot has worked the flights for means of the aircraft of the Aeroflot, but the JAL has sold tickets for the flights like if they were flights of the JAL. This practical one allows at least that the overhead lines expand their operations, on paper, in the parts of the world in which they cannot be allowed to establish the bases or to buy the aircraft. An other example was the association Austrian of Sabena on Vienna-Bruxelles-Nuovo route de York JFK during late years 60, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with the colors Austrians. Since the demands for reservation of overhead line are often made from the city-connection (which "the exposure me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an overhead line that can codify the part with an other overhead line for a variety of routes could be able to be listed like effectively offered of the flight deChicago-Chicago-Düsseldorf. The passenger recommends itself however, that overhead line 1 works the flight from the Chicago opinion to Amsterdam and overhead line 2 works the continuous flight (on a different airplane, to times from an other finishes them) to Düsseldorf. Therefore the explanation rations them primary for the compartecipazione of code must expand its offered ones of service in the terms of city-connection so as to to increase the sales. Often the companies join it operations, they buy the fuel, or they buy the airplanes as a block in order to more realize the contractual power on. However, the alliances have more succeeded to buy the invisibili refueling and services, which combustible. The overhead lines usually prefer to buy visible articles to their passengers in order to differ from the local competitors. If main the domestic competitor of the overhead line flies the airliners of the Boeing, then the overhead line can prefer to use the aircraft of the Airbus without R-with regard to that what the rest of the alliance chooses. Every responsible of a programmed letter flight or uses marks them of call of overhead line when she communicates with the airports or the centers of control of æreo traffic. The greater part of these call-signs is derives you from the denomination trades them of the overhead line, but in reason of history, the sale, or the necessity to reduce the ambiguity in spoken English (so that the pilots do not take the decisions of navigation erroneously based on the instructions published to a different aircraft), in some overhead lines and aeronautics use the call-signs relati you less obviously to their denomination trade them. As an example, British Airways uses a call-sign of Speedbird, called after the brand of relative predecessore, BOAC while the west of the America has used the cactus that it reflects the center of that company in declaring of Arizona and to differ from numerous other overhead lines using the America and the west in theirs marks them of call. The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performances precede five or six years of the improved performances. But the profit during the good years is generally low, in the net profit range 2-3% after interest and tax. In time of the profit, the overhead lines affittano the new generations of the airplanes and modernize to the services in answer more much demand. From 1980, the industry has not earned behind the cost of understood them during the better thing of the periods. For against, in the defective periods the losses can dramatically be defective.
direct envisional of southwestern Inter author of the arrival of the airline direct line princess of the cruise. southwest of the arrival of the airline direct line princess of the cruise I am of the information of the flight of the airline.
In principle, a postal service can be private or public. Governments often place restrictions on private postal delivery systems. Since the mid 19th century national postal systems have generally been established as government monopolies with a fee on the article prepaid. Proof of payment is often in the form of adhesive postage stamps, but postage meters are also used for bulk mailing. The art of communication by written documents carried by an intermediary from one person or place to another almost certainly dates back nearly to the invention of writing. However, development of formal postal systems occurred much later. The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents is in Egypt, where Pharaohs used couriers for the diffusion of their decrees in the territory of the State (2400 BC). This practice almost certainly has roots in the much older practice of oral messaging and may have been built on a pre-existing infrastructure. The first credible claim for the development of a real postal system comes from Persia (present day Iran) but the point of invention remains in question. The best documented claim (Xenophon) attributes the invention to the Persian King Cyrus the Great (550 BC), while other writers credit his successor Darius I of Persia (521 BC). Other sources claim much earlier dates for an Assyrian postal system, with credit given to Hammurabi (1700 BC) and Sargon II (722 BC). Mail may not have been the primary mission of this postal service, however. The role of the system as an intelligence gathering apparatus is well documented, and the service was (later) called angariae, a term that in time turned to indicate a tax system. The Old Testament (Esther, VIII) makes mention of this system: Ahasuerus, king of Medes, used couriers for communicating his decisions. The Persian system worked on stations (called Chapar-Khane), where the message carrier (called Chapar) would ride to the next post, whereupon he would swap his horse with a fresh one, for maximum performance and delivery speed. Herodotus described the system in this way: "It is said that as many days as there are in the whole journey, so many are the men and horses that stand along the road, each horse and man at the interval of a day’s journey; and these are stayed neither by snow nor rain nor heat nor darkness from accomplishing their appointed course with all speed".[2] By the end of the Eighteenth century the postal system in India had reached impressive levels of efficiency. According to British national Thomas Broughton, the Maharaja of Jodhpur sent daily offerings of fresh flowers from his capital to Nathadvara (320 km) and they arrived in time for the first religious Darshan at sunrise.[8] Later this system underwent complete modernization when the British Raj established it's full control over India. The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 provided that the Governor-General of India in Council had the exclusive right of conveying letters by post for hire within the territories of the East India Company. The mails were available to certain officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed. On this basis the Indian Post Office was established on October 1, 1837.[9] China enjoyed postal relay stations since the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), this network was vastly improved and extended during the Mongolian rule under Kublai Khan. Postal stations were used not only for the transmission and delivery of official mail, but were also available for traveling officials, military men, foreign dignitaries. These stations aided and facilitated the transport of foreign and domestic tribute, and trade in general. By the end of Kublai Khan's rule there were more than 1400 postal stations, which in turn had at their disposal about 50000 horses, 1400 oxen, 6700 mules, 400 carts, 6000 boats, over 200 dogs and 1150 sheep.[10] Well before the Middle Ages and during them, homing pigeons were used for pigeon post, taking advantage of a singular quality of this bird, which when taken far from its nest is able to find his way home due to a particularly developed sense of orientation. Messages were then tied around the legs of the pigeon, which was freed and could reach his original nest. Many religious orders had a private mail service, notably Cistercians' one connected more than 6,000 abbeys, monasteries and churches. The best organization however was created by the Knights Templar. The newly instituted universities too had their private services, starting from Bologna (1158). In 1505, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I established a postal system in the Empire, appointing Franz von Thurn und Taxis to run it. The Thurn and Taxis family, then known as Tassis, had operated postal services between Italian city states from 1290 onwards. Following the abolition of the Empire in 1806 the Thurn and Taxis postal system continued as a private organisation, continuing to exist into the postage stamp era before finally being absorbed into the postal system of the new German Empire after 1871. The word mail comes from the Medieval English word male (spelt that way until the 17th century), which was the term used to describe a traveling bag or pack.[11] The French have a similar word, malle for a trunk or large box, and mála is the Irish for a bag. In the 1600s the word mail began to appear as a reference for a bag that contained letters: "bag full of letter" (1654). Over the next hundred years the word mail began to be applied strictly to the letters themselves, and the sack as the mailbag. In the 19th century the British usually referred to mail as being letters that were being sent abroad (i.e. on a ship), and post as letters that were for localized delivery; in the UK the Royal Mail delivers the post, while in the USA the US Postal Service delivers the mail. The term e-mail (short for "electronic mail") first appeared in 1982. The term snail-mail is a retronym that originated in 1983 to distinguish it from the quicker e-mail. Modern mail is organized by national and privatized services, which are reciprocally interconnected by international regulations, organizations and international agreements. Paper letters and parcels can be sent to almost any country in the world relatively easily and cheaply. The Internet has made the process of sending letter-like messages nearly instantaneous, and in many cases and situations correspondents use electronic mail where previously they would have used letters (though the volume of paper mail continues to increase.)[12] The world-wide postal system comprising the individual national postal systems of the world's self-governing states is co-ordinated by the Universal Postal Union, which among other things sets international postage rates, defines standards for postage stamps and operates the system of International Reply Coupons. In most countries a system of codes has been created (they are called ZIP Codes in the United States, postcodes in the United Kingdom and Australia, and postal codes in most other countries), in order to facilitate the automation of operations. This also includes placing additional marks on the address portion of the letter or mailed object, called "bar coding." Bar coding of mail for delivery is usually expressed either by a series of vertical bars, usually called POSTNET coding, or a block of dots as a two-dimensional barcode. The "block of dots" method allows for the encoding of proof of payment of postage, exact routing for delivery, and other features. The ordinary mail service was improved in the 20th century with the use of planes for a quicker delivery (air mail). The first scheduled airmail service took place between the London suburbs of Hendon and Windsor on 9 September 1911. Some methods of airmail proved ineffective, however, including the United States Postal Service's experiment with rocket mail. Worldwide the most common method of prepaying postage is by buying an adhesive postage stamp to be applied to the envelope before mailing; a much less common method is to use a postage-prepaid envelope. Franking is a method of creating postage-prepaid envelopes under licence using a special machine. They are used by companies with large mail programs such as banks and direct mail companies. In 1998, the U.S. Postal Service authorised the first tests of a secure system of sending digital franks via the Internet to be printed out on a PC printer, obviating the necessity to license a dedicated franking machine and allowing companies with smaller mail programs to make use of the option; this was later expanded to test the use of personalised postage. The service provided by the U.S. Postal Service in 2003 allows the franks to be printed out on special adhesive-backed labels. In 2004 the Royal Mail in the United Kingdom introduced its SmartStamp Internet-based system, allowing printing on ordinary adhesive labels or envelopes. Similar systems are being considered by postal administrations around the world. When the pre-paid envelope or package is accepted into the mail by an agent of the postal service, the agent usually indicates by means of a cancellation that it is no longer valid for pre-payment of postage. The exceptions are when the agent forgets or neglects to cancel the mailpiece, for stamps that are pre-cancelled and thus do not require cancellation and for, in most cases, metered mail. (The "personalised stamps" authorised by the USPS and manufactured by Zazzle and other companies are in fact a form of meter label and thus do not need to be cancelled.) Documents cannot be read by anyone other than the receiver; for instance, in the United States it is a violation of federal law for anyone other than the receiver to open mail. However, exceptions do exist, such as postcards, which can be read by the postman for the purpose of identifying the sender and receiver. For mail contained within an envelope, there are legal provisions in some jurisdictions allowing the recording identities.[13] The privacy of correspondence is guaranteed by the Mexican Constitution, and is alluded to in the European Convention of Human Rights[14] and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[13] According to the laws in the relevant jurisdiction, correspondence may be openly or covertly opened or the contents determined via some other method, by the police or other authorities in some cases relating to their relevance to an alleged or suspected criminal conspiracy, although black chambers (largely in the past, though there is apparently some continuance of their use today) opened and open letters extralegally. Military mail to and from soldiers on active deployment is more often subject to strict censorship. International mail and packages are subjects to customs control. Modern alternatives such as the telegraph, telephone, and e-mail have reduced the attractiveness of paper mail for many applications. Sometimes these modern alternatives are more attractive because, unlike paper mail, there is no concern about unfamiliar people learning your address from the return address on the outside of an envelope. Modern alternatives can be better than paper mail because vandalism can occur with mailboxes (although it can also be argued that paper mail does not allow for computer viruses). Also, dangerous hazards exist for mail carriers such as unfriendly pets or bad weather conditions. Due to hazards or inconveniences postal carriers may refuse, officially or otherwise, to deliver mail to a particular address (for instance, if a clear path to the door or mailbox is not present). Postal mail is, however, still widely in use for business (due to the particular legal standing of signatures in some situations and in many jurisdictions, etiquette, or transmission of things that cannot be done by computer, as a particular texture, or, obviously, items in packages) and for some personal communication. For example, wedding invitations in some Western countries are customarily sent by mail. Since the advent of e-mail, which is almost always faster (barring some extreme technical glitch, computer virus or the like), the postal system has come to be referred to in Internet slang by the retronym "snail mail". Occasionally, the term "white mail" or "the PaperNet" has also been used as a neutral term for postal mail. In modern times, mainly in the 20th century, mail has found an evolution in vehicles using newer technologies to deliver the documents, especially through the telephone network; these new vehicles include telegram, telex, facsimile (fax), e-mail, and short message service (SMS). There have been methods which have combined mail and some of these newer methods, such as INTELPOST, which combined facsimile transmission with overnight delivery. These vehicles commonly use a mechanical or electro-mechanical standardised writing (typing), that on the one hand makes for more efficient communication, while on the other hand makes impossible characteristics and practices that traditionally were in conventional mail, such as calligraphy. Postage stamps are also object of a particular form of collecting, and in some cases, when demand greatly exceeds supply, their commercial value on this specific market may become enormously greater than face value, even after use. For some postal services the sale of stamps to collectors who will never use them is a significant source of revenue for example postage stamps from Tokelau, South Georgia & South Sandwich Islands, Tristan da Cunha, Niuafo´ou and many others. Stamp collecting is commonly known as philately, although strictly the latter term refers to the study of stamps. Another form of collecting regards postcards, a document written on a single robust sheet of paper, usually decorated with photographic pictures or artistic drawings on one of the sides, and short messages on a small part of the other side, that also contained the space for the address. In strict philatelic usage, the postcard is to be distinguished from the postal card, which has a pre-printed postage on the card. The fact that this communication is visible by other than the receiver often causes the messages to be written in jargon. Letters are often studied as an example of literature, and also in biography in the case of a famous person. A portion of the New Testament of the Bible is composed of the Apostle Paul's epistles to Christian congregations in various parts of the Roman Empire. See below for a list of famous letters. While many things are sent through the mail, interpersonal letters are often thought of first in reference to postal systems. Handwritten correspondence, while once a major means of communications between distant people, is now used less frequently due to the advent of more immediate means of communication, such as the telephone or e-mail. Traditional letters, however, are often considered to harken back to a "simpler time" and are still used when someone wishes to be deliberate and thoughtful about his or her communication. Bills and invoices are often sent through the mail, like regular billing correspondence from utility companies and other service providers. These letters often contain a self-addressed, envelope that allows the receiver to remit payment back to the company easily. While still very common, many people now opt to use online bill payment services, which eliminate the need to receive bills through the mail. Bulk mail is mail that is prepared for bulk mailing, often by presorting, and processing at reduced rates. It is often used in direct marketing and other commercial solicitations sent by advertisers, although it has other uses as well. The senders of these messages sometimes purchase lists of addresses (which are sometimes targeted towards certain demographics) and then send letters advertising their product or service to all recipients. Other times, commercial solicitations are sent by local companies advertising local products, like a restaurant delivery service advertising to their delivery area or a retail store sending their weekly advertising circular to a general area. Bulk mail is also often sent to companies' existing subscriber bases, advertising new products or services. Postal cards and postcards are small message cards which are sent by mail unenveloped; the distinction often, though not invariably and reliably, drawn between them is that "postal cards" are issued by the postal authority or entity with the "postal indica" (or "stamp") preprinted on them, while postcards are privately issued and require affixing an adhesive stamp (though there have been some cases of a postal authority's issuing non-stamped postcards). Postcards are often printed to promote tourism, with pictures of resorts, tourist attractions or humorous messages on the front and allowing for a short message from the sender to be written on the back. The postage required for postcards is generally less than postage required for standard letters; however, certain technicalities such as their being oversized or having cut-outs[3] may result in payment of the first-class rate being required. Postcards are also used by magazines for new subscriptions. Inside many magazines are postage-paid subscription cards that a reader can fill out and mail back to the publishing company to be billed for a subscription to the magazine. In this fashion, magazines also use postcards for other purposes, including reader surveys, contests or information requests. Larger envelopes are also sent through the mail. These are often made of sturdier material than standard envelopes and are often used by businesses to transport documents that are not to be folded or damaged, such as legal documents and contracts. Due to their size, larger envelopes are sometimes charged additional postage. Packages are often sent through some postal services, usually requiring additional postage than an average letter or postcard. Many postal services have limits on what can and cannot be sent inside packages, usually placing limits or bans on perishable, hazardous or flammable materials. Some hazardous materials in limited quantities may be shipped with appropriate markings and packaging, like an ORM-D label. Additionally, because of terrorism concerns, the U.S. Postal Service subjects their packages to various security tests, often scanning or x-raying packages for materials that might be found in mail bombs. Hybrid mail, sometimes referred to as L-mail, is the electronic lodgement of mail from the mail generator’s computer directly to a Postal Service provider. The Postal Service provider is then able to use electronic means to have the mail piece sorted, routed and physically produced at a site closest to the delivery point. It is a type of mail growing in popularity with some Post Office operations and individual businesses venturing into this market. In some countries, these services are available to print and deliver emails to those unable to receive email, such as the elderly or infirmed. Mail A Letter is one such service in the USA; in the UK, Royal Mail offers a similar service. ^ In Australia, Canada and the U.S., mail is commonly used both for the postal system and for letters and parcels; in New Zealand, post is more common for the postal system and mail for the material delivered; in the UK, post prevails in both senses. However, the British, American, Australian, and Canadian national postal services are called, respectively, Royal Mail, United States Postal Service, Australia Post, and Canada Post; in addition, such fixed phrases as post office or junk mail are found throughout the English-speaking world.
Communication is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Exchange requires feedback. The word communication is also used in the context where little or no feedback is expected such as broadcasting, or where the feedback may be delayed as the sender or receiver use different methods, technologies, timing and means for feedback. Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. (This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk). In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication. Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations. Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with animals especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses however these animals have to learn a special means of communication. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized. There are communication processes between different species of bacteria and between bacteria and non bacterial life such as eukaryotic hosts. Beneath the semiochemicals necessary for developmental processes of bacterial communities such as division, sporulation, and synthesis of secondary metabolites there are physical contact-mediated behavioral patterns being important in biofilm organisation. There are three classes of signalling molecules for different purposes, i.e. signalling within the organism to coordinate gene expressions to generate adequate response behavior, signalling between same or related and different species. The most popular communicative behavior is „quorum sensing“. Quorum sensing is the term for description of sign-mediated interactions in which chemical molecules are produced and secreted by bacteria. They are recognized of the bacterial community dependent on a critical concentration and in a special ratio to the population density. These molecules trigger the expression of a great variety of gene transcriptions. The semiochemicals used by bacteria are of great variety, especially because some signalling molecules are multiple re-usable components. Today three kinds of communicative goals are distinguished: (A) reciprocal communication, active sign-mediated interactions which is beneficial for both interacting parts; (B) messages which are produced as response on a triggering event which may be an indicator for a receiver which was not specially targeted by the producer. A coincidental event which is neutral – except of the energy costs of production – to the producer but beneficial for the receiver; (C) signalling to manipulate the receiver, i.e. to cause a response behavior which is onesided beneficial to the producer and harms the receivers often in that they behave against their normal goals. The three classes of bacteria communication enable bacteria to generate and coordinate different behavioral patterns: self and non-self identification, i.e. identification of other colonies and measurement of their size, pheromone based courtship for mating, alteration of colony structure in formatting of fruiting bodies, initiation of developmental and growth processes e.g. sporulation.[1] Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content. A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separated language. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions. Our indebtedness to the Ancient Romans in the field of communication does not end with the Latin root "communicare". They devised what might be described as the first real mail or postal system in order to centralize control of the empire from Rome. This allowed for personal letters and for Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many widespread provinces. The adoption of a dominant communication medium is important enough that historians have folded civilization into "ages" according to the medium most widely used. A book titled "Five Epochs of Civilization" by William McGaughey (Thistlerose, 2000) divides history into the following stages: Ideographic writing produced the first civilization; alphabetic writing, the second; printing, the third; electronic recording and broadcasting, the fourth; and computer communication, the fifth. The media affects what people think about themselves and how they perceive people as well. What we think about self image and what others should look like comes from the media. Communications media impact more than the reach of messages. They impact content and customs; for example, Thomas Edison had to discover that hello was the least ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as hail tended to be garbled in the transmission. Similarly, the terseness of e-mail and chat rooms produced the need for the emoticon. 1�Entirely in Southwest Asia; included here because of cultural, political and historical association with Europe. 2�Partially or entirely in Asia, depending on the definition of the border between Europe and Asia. 3�Mostly in Asia. 4�Entirely in the North American Plate, included here because of cultural, political and historical association with Europe. 5�Entirely in the African Plate, included here because of cultural, political and historical association with Europe. 6�Only recognised by Turkey.
An airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight, generally with a recognized operating certificate or license. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit. Airlines vary from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intracontinental, or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-routes, which would, through time and mergers, evolve into Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines, to name a few. At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am was the only U.S. airline to go international before the 1940s. KLM, the oldest carrier still operating under its original name, was founded in 1919. The first flight (operated on behalf of KLM by Aircraft Transport and Travel) transported two English passengers to Schiphol, Amsterdam from London in 1920. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (Dutch Indies). It is only after the loss of the Dutch Empire that KLM found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections. France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became Air France. In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair, one of the oldest still-operating airlines in the world) was signed in the city of Helsinki on 12 September 1923. Junkers F 13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on 14 March 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on 20 March 1924, one week later. Germany's Lufthansa began in 1926. Lufthansa, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-1930s, when Nazi propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial zeppelin service: the big airships were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the Hindenburg disaster of 1937. The reason they used hydrogen instead of the not-flammable helium gas was a United States military embargo on helium. The British company Aircraft Transport and Travel commenced a London to Paris service on th 25 August 1919, this was the world's first regular international flight. The United Kingdom's flag carrier during this period was Imperial Airways, which became BOAC (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in 1939. Imperial Airways used huge Handley-Page biplanes for routes between London, the Middle East, and India: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the Rub'al Khali, being maintained by Bedouins, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the British Empire. The first country in Asia to embrace air transport was the Philippines. Philippine Airlines was founded on February 26, 1941, making it Asia's oldest carrier still operating under its current name. The airline was started by a group of businessmen led by Andres Soriano, hailed as one of the Philippines' leading industrialists at the time. The airline’s first flight was made on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. Notably Philippine Airlines leased Japan Airlines their first aircraft, a DC-3 named "Kinsei". On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland,California from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the Philippines flag carrier. Another airline company to begin early operations was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group) by India's leading industrialist JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vincent. Following the end of World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 under the name Air India. After the Independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. Neighbouring countries also soon embraced air transport, notably with Cathay Pacific founded in 1946, Singapore Airlines and Malaysian Airlines in 1947 (as Malayan Airways), Garuda Indonesia in 1949 and Japan Airlines founded in 1951. With the outbreak of World War Two, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload. The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. As the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new startups. Only America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away. Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, almost every single legacy carrier except for American Airlines have operated under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions or have gone out of business. Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, the government often intervenes to halt airline labor actions in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the United Kingdom and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air," a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas. In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Profitability is likely to improve in the future as privatization continues and more competitive low-cost carriers proliferate. Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments. Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for $200 (AUD) is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay $1400 (AUD). Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily. The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). Price discrimination is considered an anti-business practice, and is defined as price discriminations definition: different prices for identical products. Technically this is the total of the specific action of the other airline, without violating laws. The archaic airlines, with hub-systems and unprofitable pricing structures, have legally defined this term as an attack on business, although this act is not outside of law. The low cost carriers (LCC's) are new on the scene and did not have the contacts or resources to outlaw this definition of a purely legal business practice (in which they chose to participate) as a monopolistic practice to those with the aforementioned archaic pricing structure. The national carriers have yet to define how discrimination is an intenionally harmful and volitionally detrimental act upon their business by a competitor. Laws protecting business can be applied, or those who have the greatest impact may insinuate without proof that they are treated unfairly, and can thus use their legal status as the defendant to limit LCC's manuevaribility within the market. An example is that they demand taxes from the US government for specific airports, for which the National's receive exemption or subsidy for either a)seniority/grandfathering treatment, or b)legal status as financially on the brink (i.e. pre-bankruptcy). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world. Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed, however, due to a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes, and surcharges they have little or no control over, and these are passed through to various providers. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the originating country. In contrast, Southwest Airlines has been the most profitable of airline companies since 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outperforming Microsoft and many other high performing companies. The chief reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control. The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. United Airlines, US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and American has barely avoided doing so. Alitalia, Scandinavian Airlines System, SABENA, Swissair, Japan Air System, Viasa, Air Canada, Ansett Australia, and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 1995, as low cost entrants enter their home markets as well. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of "undead" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups. Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs. A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period. In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. Code sharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' code sharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on flights from Tokyo to Moscow: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian- Sabena partnership on the Vienna-Brussels-New York JFK route during the late 60's, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian colors. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales. Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses a airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC while America West used Cactus reflecting that company's home in the state of Arizona and to differentiate itself from numerous other airlines using America and West in their call signs. The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance precede five or six years of improved performance. But profitability in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.
